THE DRAGONS OF DEVA

By Phillip E Jones

Towards the end of the Roman military occupation of Britain, a series of internal disputes within the empire resulted in a serious depletion of legionary manpower throughout the province. Although these power struggles were in themselves, not unusual, their coinciding with a resurgence of raiding by bands of Scottish and Irish tribesmen who were poised to take advantage of any distraction on the part of the Roman forces, resulted in the situation being far more critically important.

The west and north of the province, including what is today Wales and southern Scotland had both been centres of military resistance to Roman rule following their conquest of Britain. In response to their continued raiding and their blatant refusal to accept Roman supremacy, the legions conducted a series of campaigns against the Deceangli and Ordovices in Wales and the Caledonians in Scotland. The later writing of Roman historians, such as Tacitus, would suggest that the two Welsh tribes were almost entirely eradicated by successive Roman governors, as part of their military suppression of Wales and the island of Anglesey. In Scotland too the campaigns of Julius Agricola were equally bitter and hard fought, with his legions advancing to the Moray Firth where he crushed the native Caledonians in a decisive battle at Mons Graupius

Given the severity of these Roman military campaigns and the recorded levels of punishment inflicted by the legions on the native British tribes, it is little wonder that in the following centuries and after the final Roman withdrawal, the regions of Wales and Scotland were left relatively unprotected from the threat of attack.

Around 383 AD, a Spanish born Roman general called Magnus Maximus, serving in Britain, was elevated to the status of Emperor by his soldiers and immediately set about opposing the will of the legitimate western Emperor Gratian who was based across the channel in Roman-controlled Gaul. Maximus withdrew military forces from Britain in order to confront his opponent and after defeating Gratian established his new court at Trier. He was recognised by the other two Emperors’, Theodosius in the east and Valentinian II in the south as an equal and now ruled over the territories of Britain, Gaul and Spain.

For the next four years Maximus was content to rule over and consolidate his new kingdom and during the period was even converted to Christianity. Unfortunately for him, after this fairly peaceful interval, he began to feel that his rule was under threat from Gratian’s younger brother, the southern Emperor Valentinian and began to make preparations to oust his counterpart.

Mobilising his forces, Maximus invaded Italy and quickly took Milan and then moved on to besiege Rome itself. For nearly a year he held the city captive and it was only with the arrival of additional forces that he was finally able to capture the city, though he failed to detain Valentinian himself, which would prove to be a fateful mistake.

The ousted Valentinian managed to make his way to the court of Theodosius, the eastern Emperor, who was so outraged by the actions of Maximus that he raised an army to settle the matter by force of arms. Twice defeated at Illyricum, Maximus was finally killed, along with his son Victorius at Aquileia in 388 AD.

Legend has it, that Maximus was married to Elen the only daughter of the British king Eudaf Hen and following the death of his father-in-law had succeeded to the throne and had been known by some as Macsen Wledig. It has also been said that Maximus was supported in his military campaigns by a nephew of Eudaf Hen who was known as Cynan Meriadog. Although little is known about him, his name is associated with the later Welsh king Cunedda Wledig, who brought the Scottish-based Votadini people to Wales some forty or so years later.

In the twenty years following the death of Magnus Maximus, Britain was under the control of a series of weak western Emperor’s, who failed to properly reinforce the legions that were stationed there and to prevent the increasing number of incursions that were taking place in the provinces of Gaul and Spain.

It was as a direct response to these attacks that the second and final withdrawal of Roman troops from the British province took place. A native Briton, whose name and date of birth is not known, was raised to the status of Emperor by the army. Taking the title of Constantine III, he rallied the majority of the troops in Britain and crossed the channel to drive out the bands of Vandals, Burgundians, and Huns that were raiding the continent. Having successfully quelled the hordes, Constantine quickly gained recognition from his two reigning counterparts and established his court at Aragon in Spain.

Although remnants of the Roman military and administrative classes remained in Britain, the withdrawal of troops by Constantine III in 407 AD is widely regarded as the final Roman evacuation of Britain and ended their 400 years of occupation. The relatively sudden departure of the legionary forces left Britain at the mercy of the numerous bands of seaborne raiders that had plagued the country for many years. Serious incursions had been prevented by the presence of the highly disciplined legions and their immense defensive structures, such as Hadrian’s Wall as well as their series of military fortresses which protected large parts of Britain.

The small number of Roman commanders that had been left behind following the final withdrawal were now compelled to seriously reassess their own positions and in some cases took the decision to establish their own personal kingdoms within the former Roman province. Without the manpower and command structure of the legions however, these relatively sparse military forces were not a very effective deterrent against the large numbers of Irish and Scottish based raiders that were now infiltrating the country at will. The wealthier, more economically developed southern settlements of Britain were a prime target for these marauding bands of pirates, but few areas of the country escaped their attentions, including the lands of Wales and what is now northwest England.

Apart from these fragmentary Roman forces, much of mainland Britain was once again held by the native tribes whose ancestors had pre-dated the occupying armies of Rome and were once again able to control their homelands militarily. Many struggled though, to resist the warlike Scottish and Irish invaders who systematically raided and sacked large areas of the country and it was as a direct response to these increasing threats that compelled both British and Welsh tribal leaders to actively seek out new allies that would help them to defend their home territories.

The British king Vortigern Vorteneu who held court in Kent was thought to have been instrumental in inviting the first Saxon people to settle in these islands, a decision his people would later have cause to regret. It was thought to be in similar circumstances that the northerly Votadini people were invited to settle and defend the northern region of Wales, which was being attacked and held by Irish raiders originating from around what is now modern-day Northern Ireland.

Skilled metal-workers, horsemen and warriors, the Votadini people were thought to have been a subordinate tribe of a much larger confederation of native Celts who were called the Gododdin and inhabited the territory of Manau Gododdin near the modern-day Firth of Forth. Following the arrival of the Roman legions and the eventual subjugation of the native British tribes, the Votadini were thought to have been employed by Rome as a paid auxiliary force on the northern frontiers of the empire. They occupied the lands immediately north of Hadrian’s Wall and acted as a deterrent or buffer to any of the northern tribes that might think about attacking the Roman defences.

As a retained auxiliary force, it seems likely that the Votadini would have liaised, trained and campaigned with both the regular and irregular units that were used by the empire on its northern borders. Some historians have suggested that as a primarily cavalry-based force they may well have trained and shared tactics with the Sarmatians, a mobile auxiliary unit employed by the Romans in their British campaigns. These foreign units were reported to have carried hollow metal Dragon heads into battle with them and the flowing windsocks which trailed behind, gave the impression of real dragons flying above the horsemen as they charged towards their enemies, helping to disperse and discourage their warriors. These hollow standards were also said to have emitted a loud hissing noise as the wind flowed through them and no doubt added to the terror of the opposing native forces who would not have experienced such instruments before.

Although there appears to be little if any documentary evidence that the Votadini actually adopted these “Draco” standards as part of their own military tactics, it seems reasonable to assume that such an “oriental” or “eastern” emblem can only have come to Britain as part of the Roman invasion itself, through one of their own foreign military units, such as the Sarmatians. These Thracian horsemen were said to have formed a large part of Rome’s legionary cavalry units and it has been suggested that the dragons’ head that they carried into battle actually represented one of their own native deities. Historical records suggest that a number of Roman emperors, including Severus and Aurelianus actually adopted the dragon motif as part of their own personal imperial standard and indicates that perhaps the emblem did eventually become a commonplace design amongst the legions of Rome. Another feature of these “heavy” cavalry units which may well have been adopted by the Votadini horsemen was the wearing of chain-mail by both the rider and horse, which offered a high degree of protection to both.

Modern day archaeological research would appear to indicate that the lands of the Votadini contained numerous hill-forts and well defended settlements, whilst at the same time having individual homesteads that offered little or no defence to any attacking force. This might suggest that the people relied on having the time to withdraw to one of the many defensive positions when danger threatened, or it might simply indicate an extremely secure and well defended territory, where there was little chance of attack by an outside enemy force. The tribal capital of the Votadini was located at Trapain Law, a forty acre hill-fort standing some 500 feet high in what is now the present day Lothian area of Scotland and was an extremely well defended site, with earthen ramparts on all sides. Large quantities of Roman silver and general wares found on this site indicate the level of day-to-day trading and partnership that existed between the Votadini and the occupying forces of Rome and the silver itself may represent payment for services offered to the empire in helping to secure their northern borders.

Born towards the end of the fourth century, by around 425 AD the tribal leader of the Votadini was a warlord called Cunedda. As with many early British leaders, very little is known about him, owing to the lack of written records for the period. One ancient poem called the Marwnad Cunedda is said to record the Votadini’s wars against the forces of Coel Hen, a former commander in the Roman army and said to be the origins for the Old King Cole nursery rhyme character. Legend has it that Cunedda was descended from Roman stock on his fathers side and that his maternal grandmother was a daughter of Cynan Meriadog who fought alongside Magnus Maximimus and was a nephew to the then British king Eudaf Hen.

It has been suggested that Cunedda’s ancestors had originally come from Wales in the first place and were political refugees fleeing the occupation of their country or possibly the vengeance of Valentinian II following his defeat of Magnus Maximus at Aquileia in 388 AD. Whichever reason is true; there seems little doubt that Cunedda and his highly experienced military forces were approached by king Vortigern or some other British leader, to help defend Wales against the Irish and Scottish threat that was facing the region. Also known as Ambrosius Aurelianus, Vortigern is said to have began his rule in 424 AD. In return for their help, the Votadini were promised lands to settle and sometime around 425 AD Cunedda and his forces made the long journey from their home in the Scottish borders to the lands of North Wales.

Such was their military prowess that before too long the majority of the invaders had been expelled from much of Wales and only retained possession of small areas of the country and the isolated island of Anglesey. With most of the northern region secured, Cunedda then set about driving the remaining raiders out of Powys and Dyfed and effectively securing all of the lands that lay between the River Dee in the north and the River Taff in the south of Wales. For the next 800 years or so, Wales, in one form or another, would be ruled over by various dynasties, all of which claimed direct descent from Cunedda and his heirs.

Having rid the country of the invaders and established an effective military force within the borders of Wales, Cunedda set out to consolidate his new kingdom of Gwynedd and locating his new court at Rhos, set in the heart of his new lands. At that time, the former legionary fortress at Chester lay within the borders of Wales and was regarded by the Welsh kings as being subject to their rule. It was only following the near total conquest of Britain by the Saxon peoples that brought about the repositioning of the borders between Wales and the kingdom of Mercia, which saw Chester finally captured by the Mercian king Egbert and later incorporated into a unified England.

Cunedda was awarded the title Gwledig or Wledig which it is said could be interpreted as prince or ruler over the kingdom of Cunedda’s Land or Gwledig-y-Cunedda and has been suggested as the derivation for the name “Gwyneddia”, a title which sometimes appears on old maps of the region. There is little evidence of internal opposition to Cunedda’s arrival in Wales by its native peoples, which suggests a widespread acceptance of his right to rule and perhaps reinforces the idea that he was indeed related to the original Welsh nobility that had ruled there prior to the Roman invasion of Britain. This apparent rapid re-adoption of traditional ways, language and subservience to ancient nobles, illustrates the lack of real social change which was perhaps indicative of Roman military control in the northern areas of the province. In southern Britain there appears to have been a much greater level of Romano-British integration, which managed to survive for a much longer period, following the final withdrawal of the last Roman legions.

The dynastic clan of Cunedda and his heirs is said to have lasted for hundreds of years following their arrival in Wales and was often the heritage claimed by a number of later nobles to underpin their own claims to the Welsh throne. Given that Cunedda was reported to have had at least eight sons and two daughters his family’s name and position seems to have been reasonably secure. His extensive kingdom of Gwynedd was thought to have been divided amongst his sons, later to become separate regions that would be exist for centuries, including Meirionydd and Ceredigion.

Whilst Wales was being secured by Cunedda and his Votadini forces in the west of Britain, the south and east of the country were being swamped by an influx of Saxon mercenaries, who had initially arrived at the request of Vortigern to help defend Britain against marauding foreign sea-borne raiders. Unfortunately for the British, the Saxons, under their leaders Hengest and Horsa, took the opportunity to exploit the situation and launched their own invasion of Britain. With his own forces depleted by years of conflict, Vortigern and his people were no match for this new military threat and quickly found themselves being driven further west and towards the lands of Wales by around 440 AD.

As the colonization and influence of the Saxon’s people spread throughout the main body of Britain, its indigenous people found themselves driven further west and north and into the British-held enclaves of modern-day Wales, Cumbria and Scotland. In what is now southwest Scotland, near present-day Dumbarton, lay the lands of the kingdom of Strathclyde, one of the main tribal areas of the time. The Scottish chieftain Ceredig was thought to have lived there and it has been suggested that he was actually related to Cunedda, or possibly an extremely close ally. One of the Welsh leader’s sons was also called Ceredig and later gave his name to the region of Wales called Ceredigion. These early alliances of the isolated British-held territories continued on and off for hundreds of years, as their leaders fought in vain to defend their territories against the tide of Saxon settlement and attacks by other enemies.

Cunedda’s Welsh kingdom, which included the modern-day area of Shropshire represented a safe haven for the large numbers of dissidents and opponents to the developing Anglo-Saxon society that was growing within Britain. For the next five hundred years the lands marking the border between the two people’s was constantly fought over and disputed. The area surrounding the former Roman fort at Chester was a particular source of dispute, marking as it did, a communication centre between the Welsh and their allies who were based in Cumbria and further north in Scotland. Legend has it, that the fortress, with its excellent harbor facilities and well defended position was fought over many times, being held by both sides on a number of occasions. Towards the beginning of the 7th Century, however, the Saxons appear to have tried to solve this situation once and for all, by taking the city and finally severing the links between the Welsh tribes and their more northerly cousins.

In 607 AD the Northumbrian king Ethelfrith led his army to Chester and killed an enormous number of Welsh (Britons) and in doing so fulfilled the prophecy of Augustine that “If the Welsh will not have peace with us ,then they will perish at the hands of the Saxons”. Also slain at this “Battle of Chester” were said to be 200 monks from a monastery at Bangor who had been praying for a Welsh victory and were subjected to the same fate as their warriors. The Welsh king of Powys, Bronchmael, who had led the defeated British forces, was reported to have finally escaped the battlefield with less than fifty of his warriors.

Having gained control of the fortress, it seems that Ethelfrith was unable to hold it indefinitely and it has been suggested that a number of Welsh (British) Princes later wrested control of Chester from the Northumbrians and re-established their control over the city. For his part, Ethelfrith was reported killed some years later while his forces were fighting the East Angles, who following their victory took over large parts of the country and made it their own. Within twenty years or so however, the area around the Dee estuary was once again back under the control of the Saxons and it is likely that the city changed hands many times during the period. A church dedicated to St John and which is located on the eastern flank of Chester has been attributed to the Ethelbert, king of Mercia in around 689 AD, though this construction date has been disputed by some historians, who believe that it is a much later building.

The Saxon Chronicles which recorded the history of their peoples in Britain, albeit in a sometimes slanted way, recalls a number of bloody battles between their own Saxon armies and those of the Welsh (Britons). The Battle of Catterick, which is said to have taken place sometime between 574-600 AD is reported to mark the final action of the Gododdin people whose warriors were completely destroyed by a much larger Saxon army. Some historians have suggested that this defeated Welsh force was the Gododdin (aka the Votadini) that had moved to Wales under Cunedda. Other records however, indicate that the Britons in question were in fact the Gododdin of southern Scotland, who were defeated by the Bernicians in 597 AD, an event commemorated in the poem “Y Gododdin”.

Some seven years after the Battle of Chester, which was previously related, two Saxon lords, Cynegils and Cwichelm led their forces to victory over the Welsh at Bampton, killing a reported two thousand and forty six British warriors.

Around a hundred years after the Votadini’s move to Wales, it was thought that the kingdom established by Cunedda and his heirs was beginning to fragment due to infighting within the family. Cynddylan was the king of Powys and Maglocunus was the king of Gwynedd, both of who were first cousins, but had disagreed over which of them was the rightful heir to the Welsh throne. In the coming centuries, the final settlement and integration of the various foreign incomers to England led to a much more unified kingdom and one that we would clearly recognize today. For the native Welsh people themselves, their resistance and obstinacy to Saxon rule would eventually bring about its own benefits to their country, albeit as a result of their country being annexed and isolated by successive English rulers.

By the end of the 7th Century, portions of the historic Welsh kingdoms, notably Shropshire had been absorbed into England and parts of Powys were thought to have been seized by the Saxon king Wulfhere in around 658 AD. Perhaps the most formal division between what we now regard as England and Wales was undertaken by King Offa in the middle of the 8th Century when he ordered the construction of the massive defensive dyke which still bears his name and built in order to protect his kingdom from the native Welsh that were regularly raiding along the two countries common border.

Later English monarchs such as William the Conqueror were far more aggressive in their attitudes to the Welsh and actively sought to suppress the native Britons by force of arms and through the appointment of regional “Marcher” lords, such as Robert of Rhuddlan, who exercised total military control over their territories. Edward I (Longshanks) was another English ruler that sought to pacify the Welsh homelands through military control and to do so, ordered the construction of a network of castles throughout Wales, as well as the colonization of Welsh towns by English settlers, that were completely loyal to him. He was also responsible for creating the hereditary title of “Prince of Wales” which has since been awarded to the eldest son of the English monarch and today is held by Prince Charles.

The former Roman fortress at Chester, that once formed part of the Welsh homelands and which was thought to have been protected by the Votadini after their move from Scotland was later turned into a strategic defensive position, which aided the English lords in their military suppression of Wales and its native population many of who could have been direct descendants of Cunedda’s own people.

Had they not accepted Vortigern’s invitation to move south and protect western England from Irish and Scottish raiders, would the history of Britain be significantly different from what we know today?

Would Wales have a dragon as its nation emblem? Would the Gododdin people of southern Scotland have survived the later attacks of the Bernician Angles, if they had been supported by the military strength of the Votadini?

Would the Saxon occupation of Britain been more extensive, with Wales conquered along with the rest of the country, with no Votadini to offer resistance to their armies and sanctuary to their enemies?

 

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